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Climate Change Impacts on Wetlands of the Yellow River Headwaters

The impacts of climate change and human activities have modified the structure and the distribution pattern of wetlands of the Yellow River headwaters. We studied ETM and TM satellite images data using GIS from 1990, 2000 and 2010 to analyse changes in the spatial distribution and patterns of the wetland area that supplies water to the Yellow River. We propose stable conditions for the different types of wetlands and mutual transition probabilities. Time series data on temperature, precipitation and evaporation at the Jimai and Maduo hydrological and meteorological stations were analysed. Characteristics and trends of meteorological factors were studied. The relational grades of different wetlands and meteorological factors were calculated using Grey System Theory. Major factors determining wetland evolution in the Yellow River headwaters were proposed and the impacts of climate change on wetland evolution were analysed. Wetland evolution in the Yellow River headwaters is closely related to climate change. Precipitation is the dominant meteorological determinant for the wetland pattern evolution and transformation of the other wetland types. Presence of wetland areas is positively correlated with precipitation and temperature and negatively correlated with evaporation. Wetlands are important for maintaining the “cold and wet” effect on regional climates; when precipitation increases, the “cold and wet” effect of the wetland increases.

Xianqi Zhang

Effects of Soil Crusts and Tillage Treatment on Soil Erosion in the Loess Plateau of China

The objective of this laboratory study was to assess the effects of soil crusts and tillage treatments on soil erosion in the Loess Plateau of China. The simulated rainfall storms at 40 mm/h, 60 mm/h and 80 mm/h rates were applied to the soil boxes set to a 17.6% slope, two soil surface conditions (crusted and uncrusted soil surface) and two tillage types (contour tillage and straight slope) were used to investigate the resulting runoff rate and sediment yield. Results show that the runoff rates were greater and total soil loss was lower in crusted than uncrusted soils. Contour tillage treatment resulted in smaller runoff rate and total soil loss than straight slope treatment. Rainfall intensity, soil crusts and tillage treatments had very significant (p < 0.001) effects both on total runoff yield and soil loss. The combined effects of rainfall intensity and tillage treatment on total runoff yield and soil loss were much more significant (p < 0.01) than the other combined effects (p < 0.05). Rainfall intensity had a greatest correlation with the total runoff yield while tillage treatments had a greatest correlation with the total soil loss. As a result, the tillage treatments in the Loess Plateau can reduce the impact of soil crusts on soil erosion effectively.

Qiuju Wu, Linhua Wang and Faqi Wu

Effect of Free Nitrous Acid as Inhibitor on Denitrification Process

Denitrification process is an important step of the global nitrogen cycle. As an intermediate of this process, nitrite always can be found accumulated when the nitrite reduction rate falling behind the rate of nitrate reduction. This study investigated the influence of nitrite/free nitrous acid (FNA) on denitrification process. The nitrate reduction rate, nitrite accumulation rate, nitrite reduction rate and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal rate were measured under different FNA concentrations, and different levels of inhibition were observed in the nitrate reduction, nitrite reduction, nitrite accumulation and COD removal process. The nitrite accumulation rate decreased by 82% when initial FNA concentration was increased from 0.022 mg/L to 0.045 mg/L, and no nitrite accumulation was observed when the initial FNA concentration was greater than 0.072 mg/L. The nitrate reduction process in this experiment was almost completely inhibited and COD removal process was totally halted when the initial FNA concentration was increased to 0.18 mg/L; in the meantime, the phenomenon of bacteriolysis might occur in this test, which led to a slight upward tendency of COD concentration. The impact of FNA on nitrate reduction process was greater than that on nitrite reduction process, though nitrite reduction was also inhibited by FNA, it could not be completely halted. The amended Monod model was chosen to describe the inhibitory effect and the inhibition of FNA concentration on nitrate reduction, nitrite reduction and COD removal process could all be well described by this model.

Juqing Lou, Dongye Yang and Peide Sun

Hydrological Effects of Forest Litter and Soil on Different Density Plantations of Pinus sylvestris L. Var. mongolica Litv. in Mu Us Sandland, Northwest China

A pilot study of hydrological effects of litter and soil layers was carried out on different density plantations of Pinus sylvestris L. Var. mongolica Litv. in the southeast of Mu Us Sandland. For the purpose of evaluating the hydrological function of litter and soil quantitatively, 30 standard plots (10 types of forest×3 replications) were investigated. The soil physical characteristics and water-holding capacity were determined. The results showed that: (1) The total storage capacity of litter among 10 forest types, generally followed by the sequence of forest densities, were PIII = PIV > PX > PVII > PIX > PVI > PVII >PV > PII > PI; the maximum water-holding capacity and effective water-holding capacity of litter, for 10 forest types, were 2.46-8.23 t/hm2 and 0.163-6.42 t/hm2, respectively. (2) There were no significant differences in water content, bulk density and the maximum water-holding capacity of soil amongst these forest types, with the variation range of 8.94-16.54%, 1.10-1.66 g/cm3 and 200.43-266.43 t/hm2, respectively. However, the non-pore porosity of soil among these 10 forest types varied greatly with a variation range of 0.99-4.32%. The hydrological effects of soil were the highest in the PIII and PIV plots, and the lowest in the PI plot. (3) The power function model can better indicate high correlation coefficients between the water absorption rate of litter and its immersion time, and also between the water-holding capacity of litter and its soaking time. The stable infiltration rates of soil in 10 different forest stands were consistent, while they varied greatly with a range of 0.11-0.89 mm/min after 20 minutes. (4) In this study, the hydrological effects of forest litter and soil in PIII and PIV plots were the best, and the optimal afforestation density was 1500 to 1800 plants per hectare. The results show that thinning should be done timely and appropriately in this study area to prevent the recession of a forest stand. Besides, it is unapproachable whether Pinus sylvestris Var. mongolica can be planted in large scale or in high density, and further research is needed.

Ruiping Hou, Kebin Zhang, Bilal Ahmad, Lili Wang and Xiao Wang

MmZFP1 Response to Abiotic Stress in the Invasive Plant Mikania  micrantha

Mikania micrantha is one of the most problematic invasive alien species in China, and has had a serious economic and environmental impact. In the majority of plant genera, Cys2/His2-type zinc-finger proteins (C2H2-type ZFPs) are involved in abiotic stress responses. In the present study, MmZFP1, a two-fingered C2H2-type ZFP gene, was cloned and characterized from Mikania micrantha. MmZFP1 has two C2H2-type finger domains and other three conserved regions, including a B-box, an L-box and a DLN-box, which may be located in the nucleus. In our experiments MmZFP1 was strongly expressed in roots, but weakly in stems and leaves. In Mikania micrantha the expression of MmZFP1 could be induced by ABA, by dehydration and by high salinity. Observations of the phenotypes indicated that constitutive expression of MmZFP1 in transgenic lines resulted in growth retardation and this could be correlated with the expression level of MmZFP1. Over-expression of MmZFP1 in Arabidopsis thaliana can up-regulate the expression levels of the drought stress tolerance genes including ABF3 and ABF4 under normal growing conditions, which results in improved tolerance to drought. Both of the stress tolerance genes are involved in ABA-dependent pathways. Thus, our results suggest that MmZFP1 plays a key role in drought stress resistance, and this information is helpful in providing further understanding the molecular mechanism of the high degree of environmental adaptability of Mikania micrantha.

Sihong Zhou, Nana Liu, Yun Sun, Di Wu and Yuxia Hou

Studies on Plant Community Complexity in Fenced Region of Ningxia, Northern China

Biocomplexity theory is becoming increasingly important in understanding natural vegetation dynamics and interrelation among all components of ecosystems. A study was conducted under this concept in order to investigate the impacts of different fencing periods and measures on plant community complexity in desert grasslands of Yanchi County of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. The study was carried out by using a quadrat method and based on the average length of the Huffman code to describe total complexity L(S), Rényi entropy H(S) as disorder-based complexity, and the difference D (S) = L(S)-H(S) as structural complexity. The relationship was also studied between three kinds of complexity index and the number of species, Importance value of dominant species. The results showed that enclosure increases disorder-based complexity index and structural complexity index, which makes total complexity index to increase. Therefore, fencing is an effective measure for vegetation restoration and rehabilitation while long-term fencing is not conducive to vegetation restoration. In this study disorder-based complexity index is higher than structural complexity index, which means that disorder-based complexity index has great effects on total complexity index. The relationship between L(S ) and H(S) is very close whereas the correlation between H(S) and D(S) is negative. There is significant relationship between the number of species and the three kinds of complexity index. The importance value of dominant species is not significantly correlated with structural complexity, which has significant negative correlation with the other indices.

Xiaodan Liu, Kebin Zhang, Mammo Siraj and Lili Wang

The Study of Terraced Field Erosion Based on the Scale Model in the Loess Plateau under Extreme Rainstorm Conditions

The terraced field was an important way to develop the high-efficiency agriculture on the loess plateau, however, lots of terraced field were heavily damaged by the extreme rainstorm in 2013. Improving the terraced field design standard had become a difficulty in recent research. Based on the field observation and similarity theory, this paper constructed a 1:10 terraced field scale model. The artificial rainfall together with water releasing experiments were designed to simulate the soil erosion process in the scale model. The experimental results revealed that the erosion process of the prototype in extreme rainstorm could be reappeared under the experimental condition that the rainfall intensity was 0.395 mm/min and the experiment lasting time was 2.68 hours. Both the erosion amount and the erosion gully topography of the scale model could be verified by the measured data of the prototype. It can be inferred that the equivalent erosive precipitation of the extreme rainstorm was 636 mm. And it was an effective method to research the soil and water erosion process and the terraced field design standard utilizing the terraced field scale model.

Yuanxing Zhang, Jianen Gao, Li’na Wu, Huijuan Li, Xianfa Bai, Juan Li and Xinghua Li

Groundwater Contamination by Wastewater in Figuig Oasis (Eastern High Atlas, Morocco)

The aquifer basin of Figuig is located at the eastern extremity of High Atlas of Morocco. It is a multi-layer aquifer system. The Triassic formation is characterized by clay and the Jurassic formation by the carbonate, while the Quaternary formation is formed by alluvial silts and sands. The present work focuses on the study of salinity and contamination of groundwater by discharges of wastewater into septic tanks in this region. The methodology used was to map the spatial and temporal variation of salinity and to define the spatial extent of the contamination. The results obtained for (1) salinity, (2) bacteriology (faecal and total coliforms), and (3) nitrates and (4) a simulation of contaminant transport using the MODPATH code indicate that the southern zone has high salinity and the south and southeast areas are contaminated by wastewater discharges. For this purpose, the quality of groundwater in the oasis of Figuig deteriorated over time. This work is expected to assist local authorities in developing plans and in reducing the pollution to acceptable levels.

Abdelhakim Jilali, Mahmoud Abbas, Mounir Amar and Yassine Zarhloule

A New Approach to Derive Clearance Levels for Wastes Containing Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) (Case Study: Lavan Island, Iran)

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) are present in earth’s crust with different concentrations. Human activities such as oil and gas production and mineral extraction and processing could enhance the natural level of NORM in by-products and waste streams. To protect public and workers from these enhanced NORM sources, clearance levels should be established. Clearance levels are regulatory limits which are defined in order to protect the environment and human from radiation sources. This study proposes a new approach to derive both generic and specific clearance levels. This approach consists of two scenario systems; Generic Scenario System (GSS) and Specific Scenario System (SSS). GSS is a comprehensive assessment tool which can be applied for any country. GSS is assembled by extensive research and actual NORM management methods. GSS investigates the radiological impacts of NORM from generation through final disposal. SSS is acquired through combination of GSS with field data and observation. This approach simultaneously considers both human health and economic aspects. To examine the implication of this method, Lavan Island in Persian Gulf is chosen for case study. The comparison between the generic and specific approaches for Lavan Island indicates that most exposure scenarios in generic approach which could result in extremely conservative values do not exist in specific scenarios regarding Lavan Island. Exposure groups, waste management options and enclosed circumstances of Islands, make them a preferable location to distinguish between SSS and GSS and understand the approach of this paper.

Siavash Sedighian, Mohammad Ali Abdoli, Mohammad Hossein Niksokhan, Seon-Hong Kim and Seung-Yeon Cho

An Analysis of the Spatial Heterogeneity of the Functioning of Ecosystem Services Related to Land-and-Water Resources

The types and quality of services are provided to humans by ecosystems vary widely across the earth’s landscapes. As human population increases, people are placing increasing importance on ecosystem services and the topic has moved to the forefront of human concerns. This paper analyses regional differences in the functioning of ecosystem services related to land-and-water resources based on panel data collected in 2011 and establishes an index system that can be used to evaluate the functioning of ecosystem services. Furthermore, 31 regions were clustered and compared using an evaluation matrix that considers the current level and pace of economic development in those regions. First, results show that a certain level of spatial heterogeneity exists among the ecosystem services provided by land-and-water resources in different regions of China; this heterogeneity is closely connected with the current conditions and speed of economic development. Second, the services provided by ecosystems appear to function and perform better in north, east and northeast China, in areas with stronger economic development, but a limited history of past development. Finally, ecosystem services perform poorly in north China, south China, Tibet, and northwest and southwest China in areas that exhibit different speeds of economic development.

Zhi Zhou, Ying Huang, Li Zhao and Anqiang Jia

Analysis of the Competition Network of Industrial Waste Emissions in Beijing, China

Beijing is facing an increasing threat from environmental problems. Since the environment is a public resource, waste emissions from industries are non-competitive and non-exclusive, which indicates that there are competition relationships among industries in Beijing. In order to investigate these relationships in quantity, this paper employs a 2-mode network method to construct a competition network of Beijing’s industries using data for 2011 and then analyses the competition network using network indices. Five kinds of wastes are considered: wastewater, waste gas, common solid waste, waste dust and hazardous emissions. Our main findings include: the manufacture of raw chemical materials and chemical products and the manufacture of non-metallic mineral products are under intense emission competition in Beijing. Industries are divided into three groups by waste emission. Two industries mainly discharge hazardous waste; six industries mainly discharge wastewater; and the remaining 12 industries discharge waste dust, common solid waste and waste gas. These relationships should be considered in industrial planning, and industries that discharge similar waste types should not be located close together.

Chunguang Li and Wenying Huang

Appraisal of Groundwater Quality Around two International Tourism Destinations, Kovalam and Vizhinjam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

The current groundwater state of Kovalam and Vizhinjam area was swot up in detail. The importance of these two places fetches much emphasis for the present study. Vizhinjam is the place where an international port is intended to come up and the pilot activities have already been set off. The Kovalam is the second spot which is an international tourism destination where owing to the invasion of hefty scale buoyant population, both the quality and quantity of groundwater, is being pretentious. While analysing the water quality, problems identified include the acidic water content, incident due to the low pH in the open wells and the microbiological contamination at multiple locations posturing peril to the locale. Imperative parameters, which have commanding influence were projected into a geospatial platform and primed various thematic maps. By integrating the thematic maps by assigning weighted parameter rating (WPR), a groundwater quality zonation map was also prepared. This map is ready to lend a hand to locate zones where good quality water is accessible. Apart from the anthropogenic blemish, the doable sources of geogenic contamination were also considered.

R. S. Prasanth, J. Remya and R. B. Binoj Kumar

Assessment indicators of Soil Quality in Loess Gullied Hilly Region of China

Agricultural soil quality evaluation is essential for economic success and environmental stability in Loess gullied hilly region of China. The objective of this study was to develop a suitable soil index from the existence soil indices which were suitable for Loess gullied hilly region of China. A simplified indicator system of soil quality evaluation has been established. Selected soil parameters include aggregation rate, soil organic matter, total N, available P, available K, CaCO3, catalase and invertase. The proposed simplified soil quality index incorporates all important properties of soils mainly physical, fertility and healthy, which are able to give adequate information on the soil quality status. Match analysis showed a high linear correlation between simplified indicator system and original indicator system. In conclusion, the proposed simplified indicator system for soil quality evaluation of different land-use type will help soil quality evaluator to study and describe the current quality status.

Jianing Zhang, Min Xu and Faqi Wu

A Comparative Decolourisation of Rbbr Dye and Guaiacol Degradation by Free and Immobilized Laccase Producing Bacillus Spp.

The aim of the research work was decolourisation of Remazol Brilliant Blue R (an anthraquinone dye) and guaiacol by free cells and immobilized strains of Bacillus sp. D1023, D1032 and D1033 which were isolated from field soil of Ambala College of Engineering and Applied Research. Comparison between free cells and immobilized cells was observed using 100 mg/L of Remazol Brilliant Blue R and efficiency of beads was observed by reutilization of beads using same concentration of dye. The selected strains D1023, D1032 and D1033 were able to decolourise RBBR dye up to 81.23%, 73.14% and 75.44% by free cells and 94.54%, 84.45% and 89.50% by immobilized cells respectively. These strains are also utilized to treat Guaiacol and corresponding colour change has been observed for free and immobilized strains. To increase the decolourisation process 2×SG medium was used which increases the spore production in culture.

Viraj Krishna Mishra, Himani Sharma and J. Dubey

Effect of Litter Decomposition on Soil Polarization in Two Typical Planted Pure Broadleaved Forests in the Gully Region of Loess Plateau, China

Soil polarization is a new concept which describes the deviation of soil properties of planted pure forest from its original equilibrium status towards an extreme condition due to long-term growth or continuous planting of single tree species. It is thought to be one obstacle of forest. In order to investigate the effect of litter decomposition on soil polarization of planted forests in the gully region of Loess Plateau, China, humus soil and litter were sampled in two typical broadleaved forests, and 4 treatments as “soil + leaf litter”, “soil + roots”, “soil + leaf litter + roots”, and CK were set for laboratory incubation experiment in this research. The results showed that polarizations of different properties were variable, in both direction and degree, after the incubation with litters. Based on analyzing the polarization ratios by PCA (principal component analysis) method, the results of comprehensive soil properties were showed as follows: in the Robinia pseudoacia forest soil, both of leaf litter and roots resulted in negative polarization, and leaf litter showed greater effect than roots; in the Betula platyphylla forest soil both of leaf litter and roots resulted in negative polarization, and also leaf litter showed greater effect than roots. When leaf litter and roots mixed-together with the soil, the interaction sequence is R. pseudoacia (0.497) > B. platyphylla (-0.466). The result indicated that leaf litter and roots when mix-incubated with forest soil showed promoting effect on soil properties in the R. pseudoacia forest soil, and showed inhibitory effect on soil properties in B. platyphylla forest soil. In general, litter decomposition in R. pseudoacia forest soil was more beneficial for soil properties than B. platyphylla.

Cai-Hong Mi, Zeng-Wen Liu and Bo-Chao Zhu

Emission and Performance Characteristics of A Diesel Engine Operating on Diesel-Bael (Aegle marmelos) Biodiesel Blends

The performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a single cylinder direct injection diesel engine fuelled with bael (Aegle marmelos) seed oil methyl ester (BOME), diesel and their blends (B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100) have been presented in this paper. BOME was prepared from bael seed oil with methanol by acid and alkali catalysed reaction due to high acid value of oil. The brake specific fuel consumption was higher for biodiesel due to its lower calorific value. Though BOME and its blends recorded lower brake thermal efficiency, they have lower tail pipe emissions as compared to diesel, except for NOx. Based on this study, bael biodiesel blend B20 (20% biodiesel + 80% diesel, by volume) can be partially substituted for diesel in existing diesel engines without any modification.

A. Dhanamurugan and R. Subramanian

A Non-Point Source Load Simulation of the Yangtze River Basin, China

This study uses an interpolation method in spatial simulation to simulate immeasurable factors affecting the non-point source (NPS) load on the Yangtze River basin. Spatial simulation is also applied by the improved export coefficient model to present NPS loads. Self-organizing maps are used to expose the correlation of these factors to NPS load. The results show that the highest precipitation impact factor value distributes mainly in the eastern region of the basin; the lower value locates at north western of the basin. The lowest terrain impact factor located mainly at the eastern and western region; the highest terrain impact factor value distributes spread at middle region of the basin. The highest non-point source load value distributes at middle region of the basin; the lowest value distributes in the western region of the Yangtze River basin. Grassy land factor; agriculture land factor; forest land factor; precipitation factor; and fertilizer factor have correlation with population factor in the highest value. Precipitation factor and forest land factor; population factor and agriculture land factor; grassy land factor and barren factor have correlation with each other at the lowest value. Wetland factor and barren land factor; total nitrogen load factor and total phosphorus factor have closely correlation each other at the lowest and highest value. Forest cover rate factor has no correlation with others.

MinhThu Nguyen, Wenting Zhang, Yarong Chen, Ping Kang, Yanhua Zhuang and Song Hong

Impact of Urbanization on CO2 Emissions: Regional Differences Based on Panel Estimation

This study analysed the impact of urbanization and the level of economic development on energy-related CO2 emissions using the STIRPAT model and provincial panel data from 1995 to 2011 for China. This study classifies the 29 provinces of China into groups according to their economic development levels and examined regional differences in the environmental impacts of urbanization. The results demonstrated that there was an inverted U-curve-shaped relationship between urbanization and CO2 emissions in the major regions of China. However, we did not confirm the environmental Kuznets Curve relationship between income and CO2 emissions in China, where CO2 emissions increase monotonically with income. Among our contributions is the classification of the 29 provinces of China into three groups according to their economic development levels, which showed that the impacts of urbanization differ considerably. In two of the groups, a threshold level was identified, beyond which the emission-urbanization elasticity was negative and further increases in the urbanization rate did not contribute to higher emissions. However, for the third group only population and affluence, but not urbanization, helped to explain emissions. Therefore, the different impacts of urbanization on CO2 emissions should be taken into consideration in future discussions of climate change policies.

Zhengxia He and Wenxing Shen

Speciation Distribution Characteristics of Heavy Metals and its Relationships with Soil Acid Chemical Properties in the Chengdu Plain

Based on the field investigation, 197 soil samples were collected to analyse the concentration and speciation distribution characteristics of Cd, Cu, Pb, Cr and Zn. The relationships between the soil acid chemical properties and the speciation of heavy metals were studied in this paper. The results showed that the content of Cd, Cu, Pb, Cr and Zn in the soil significantly increased compared with the Second National Soil Survey. Comparing with the standard of National Soil Environmental Quality, the heavy metals of soil in the Chengdu plain has polluted the soil to certain degree. For the form distribution of soil heavy metal, Cd was mainly presented in the Fe-Mn oxidation bound and Cu, Pb, Cr, Zn mainly consisted in the residual form. There was certain correlation between each active state (exchangeable form, carbonate state, Fe-Mn oxidation state and organic combination state), which could be converted mutually and had strong potential hazards to environment. The acid chemical properties of soil had notable or highly notable impact on the pattern distribution of heavy metals. Soil pH had obvious effect on the liable morphological changes of Cd, Pb and Zn. The soil acid buffer property (soil acid damage capacity) had highly significant positive correlation with exchangeable form, carbonate state, Fe-Mn oxidation state and liable speciation of Cd in the soil, while had highly significant negative correlation with exchangeable form, organic bound and liable speciation of Cr in the soil, and remarkable negative or positive correlation with exchangeable form, organic bound, carbonate state and Fe-Mn oxidation of Zn in the Chengdu Plain.

Bing Li, Yue Jun Fu, Chang Quan Wang and Yan Yang

Effect of Wind Direction on Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion Inside a Street Intersection

The airflow and pollutant dispersion inside a street intersection under six different wind directions (q=0°, ±10°, ±30° and 45°) were evaluated using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach. The numerical results reveal that the flow and pollutant dispersion inside a street intersection are greatly influenced by the incoming wind direction: (1) The air exchange between the outer flow and the intersection interior is the strongest under the wind direction angles of ±10°, while it is the weakest for the wind direction angle of 45°; (2) the pollutants from the intersection centre at the ground level are transported into the different streets depending on the various wind directions.

Huang Lihua, Huang Yuandong, He Wenrong, Huang Liming and Ren Yixin

Chronic Effects of Cadmium on Gonad Differentiation of the Spot Frog (Pelophylax nigromaculata) Larvae

Cadmium (Cd), one of the most common endocrine disruptors (EDCs), plays an important role in sex differentiation by blocking receptors of sex steroid hormones in amphibians. To analyse the influence of Cd on gonadal sex differentiation of spot frog (Pelophylax nigromaculata) larvae, the fertilized eggs were exposed to Cd (100, 10, 1 and 0.1 µg/L) in water until complete metamorphosis. We observed sex ratio and gonadal condition, detected the expression and location of estrogen receptor (ER) and metallothioneins (MTs) on the gonad cells by immunohistochemical method. Some intersex gonads (the same gonad has testicular and ovarian-like elements) in Cd treatment at 10, 1 and 0.1 µg/L were observed. Compared to control, female/male ratios at Cd treatment levels (1 and 0.1 µg/L) were significantly different (p< 0.05). ER and MTs were positively expressed in the cytoplasm and nuclei of gonad, and the expression of ER and MTs did not show a monotonic linear relationship in the Cd treatment. In the relatively lower concentration (10, 1 and 0.1 µg/L), ER and MTs expressions were stronger, while it appeared to be weak immunoreactivity in higher concentration (100 µg/L). The expression and location of ER and MTs on the gonad cells and sex ratios were affected by Cd, indicating that Cd has estrogenic effect on P. nigromaculata.

Min-Yi Huang, Xiao-quan Kong, Ren-yan Duan, Hong Bao, Yan Zhou and Yuan-yuan Ding

Experimental Research on the Promotion of Supersaturated Total Dissolved Gas Dissipation by the use of Activated Carbon

Spill discharge and abrupt water temperature rising may result in total dissolved gas (TDG) supersaturation, which can lead to gas bubble disease (GBD) and even cause mortality of fish. Studies on the mitigation measures about how to promote the dissipation process of supersaturated TDG are essential for the protection of fishes. In this paper, the experimental research about the promotion of supersaturated TDG dissipation by using activated carbon was conducted in static water and stir-induced turbulent water respectively. Supersaturated TDG dissipation processes with different content of activated carbon have been monitored and the dissipation coefficients of supersaturated TDG under various conditions were obtained. The results indicate that the activated carbon can increase the dissipation speed of TDG obviously. The higher the activated carbon content is, the greater the dissipation coefficient is. It can be concluded that the TDG supersaturation problem can be mitigated by introducing activated carbon and enhancing water turbulence when supersaturated TDG occurs in the fish ponds or fish proliferation stations. This study can provide scientific data for the exploration of mitigation measures of supersaturated TDG, which is fundamental for the protection of fishes.

Jin-lan Niu, Ran Li, Xia Shen and Le-le Wang

Application of Statistical and Spatial Outlier Identification for Evaluating the Environmental Baseline of Iron in Shallow Groundwater

Environmental baseline is essential for local environmental management, and a series of methods have been carried out for solving this issue. In this study, sixty-two shallow groundwater samples from the urban area in Suzhou, northern Anhui Province, China have been collected and analysed for their iron concentrations, and then processed by either statistical (box plot) or spatial analyses (spatial clustering) for outlier identification. The results indicate that four and five samples have been identified as outliers by box plot and spatial analysis, respectively, and the rest of the samples (fifty-four) have been set as environmental baseline samples. Their mean ± 2s concentration is then set as environmental baseline (0-104.720 µg/L). The study demonstrated that spatial analysis is useful for assisting the outlier identification during evaluating the environmental baseline relative to statistical methods.

Linhua Sun and Herong Gui

Effects of Paper Mill Wastewater on Seedling Growth and Antioxidant System of Reeds

Effects of different concentrations of wastewater (chemical oxygen demands of 300, 175 and 50 mg·L-1) from a paper mill on seedling growth and antioxidant system in reeds were tested in experimental pools that simulated the wetland ecosystem. Root length, biomass and moisture content, but not shoot moisture content and plant height, significantly increased with increases in wastewater concentration. At 300 mg·L-1, shoot biomass increased by 52.5% and root biomass increased by 73.05% over the control. Malondialdehyde content, production rate of superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide content all decreased with increasing concentration. At 300 mg·L-1, malondialdehyde content, production rate of superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide content were 0.34, 0.24 and 0.16 times, respectively, those of the control in leaves and were 0.25, 0.19 and 0.17 times, respectively, those of the control in roots. Superoxide dismutase, peroxidase and catalase activities and ascorbic acid and glutathione contents in reeds significantly increased with increasing concentrations of wastewater. These results suggest that a concentration of 300 mg·L-1 could improve the activities of antioxidant enzymes, inhibit the generation of reactive oxygen species and reduce the generation of malondialdehyde, thus effectively alleviating the damage caused by salinity in wetland soil.

Fanbin Meng, Fangli Su, Tieliang Wang and Haifu Li

Study on Air Quality and Influences on Human Respiratory Health Among Residents Who Occupy Buildings at Former Landfill Site

The former landfill site produces various combinations of gases that can cause health problems. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of air quality on the residents’ respiratory health that occupy buildings at the former landfill site at Taman Sri Manja, Petaling Jaya, Selangor compared with the control which in PPR Air Panas located at Setapak, Kuala Lumpur. Methods that are used for this study are gas sampling using aeroqual and multi-log gas detector. High-volume sampler (HVS) was used for PM10 determination. The open plate method was used to determine total count formed by microorganisms. Questionnaire forms and peak flow meter were used to determine the value of Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) of 196 respondents in the case study and 190 respondents in control. Results showed that all the parameters including gases, PM10, heavy metals and total count of microbes under the estimated standard value have no significant difference between the case study and control. There is significant difference (p=0.031) of PEFR (L/min) value between respondent at case (347.54 ± 89.50) and control (326.97 ± 97.90). Respiratory symptoms score also showed significant differences (p=0.04) between respondents at case (1.38 ± 0.36) and control (1.30 ± 0.37) location. Although there was significant difference (p<0.05) between the average value of peak flow meter and the expected value, but the value for both case and control study are between the range of 20% under the expected value which indicated normal respiratory health status. As conclusion, there was a significant difference of PEFR average value in case and control study. The presence of pollutants contributed to the high respiratory symptom score at the case location compared to control.

Anuar Ithnin, Muhammad Shakirin, Nurhudayanti Mohd Yusuf, Shamrul Aizam Abd. Rahman and Azhar Abdul Halim

A Fuzzy Logic Model to Determine Petroleum Hydrocarbons Concentration at Different Depths of Contaminated Soil During Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is a cost-effective, efficient and environment-friendly biological method to reduce petroleum-based contamination in soil. However, limited access to soil samples from various depths during phytoremediation along with the cost, time and effort required for quantitative measurement of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) necessitates the development of a mathematical model to overcome the existing obstacles. Since fuzzy logic is an appropriate method for meddling systems with inadequate or vague and non-specific information, the present study sought to determine TPH concentrations during phytoremediation through such a technique. Based on previous research and the conditions of areas adjacent to Isfahan Oil Refinery (Isfahan, Iran), sorghum and barley were planted in 130 cm long polyvinyl chloride pipes containing contaminated soil samples from the mentioned area. After 17 weeks, TPH concentrations were measured at 25, 50, 75, and 100 cm depths of soil. The percent reduction in TPH concentrations was 23%-35% higher in the presence of sorghum and barley than in unplanted treatments. Fuzzy inference with two inputs (time and depth) and 10 membership functions was used to quantify TPH concentrations (the output) at different depths of planted and unplanted soils during the phytoremediation process. Since the calculated and measured values were consistent, the developed model can be applied in future phytoremediation studies in other contaminated areas.

Farida Iraji Asiabadi, Seyed Ahmad Mirbagheri, Hadi Radnezhad

Effect of Enclosure Period on Soil Properties and Characteristics of Plant Community in Degraded Grassland

Artificial enclosure has been an important and practical measure widely used to restore vegetation in the ecologically degraded area. In this study, using a standard plot investigation method, we investigated the changes in biomass and species diversity of the plant communities in the desertified grassland located in Ningxia Autonomous Region, China, after enclosure for 0, 5, 15 and 25 years with fences made up of cement piles and barbed wires, with a complete exclusion of interferences from any activities including grazing. We also analysed the factors driving the changes in these parameters. The results showed that with the increase in the enclosure duration, the soil electrical conductivity and nutrient contents were significantly increased but the thickness of biological crust in the deserted area was not changed regularly and the soil pH values were changed only slightly. Furthermore, while no significant differences in plant biomass, species abundance and a-diversity were seen, significant difference in b-diversity was seen among different enclosure years. Principal component analysis showed the significant differences in species compositions in the deserted grassland among various enclosure years. The redundancy analysis revealed that the available nitrogen, available potassium, soil organic carbon and soil electrical conductivity were the major factors affecting the plant species compositions in the deserted area in the studied region. These findings can be of practical significance for formulating the measures to effectively curb the deterioration of ecological environment in grassland.

Xiaoteng Xu, Kebin Zhang, L. L. Wang, R. P. Hou and V. Squires

Experimental Study on Self Compacting Concrete (M25) with 25% Fly ash Incorporating 10% Replacement of Coconut-Shell as Coarse Aggregate

This paper aims to focus on the possibility of using 10% of coconut shell aggregate (CSA) replaced for coarse aggregate in self compacting concrete (SCC) containing 25% fly ash (FA) prepared using additives of super plasticizer and viscosity modifying agent. The SCC with normal aggregate containing FA 25% is taken as (SCC), a reference and in the same mix, 10% of coconut shell aggregate is replaced for coarse aggregate. The fresh and hardened properties in both the SCC (M25) and SCC-CSA are studied in laboratory experiments. The possibility of potential use of coconut shell being one of the major agro-wastes in South India, as partial replacement of coarse aggregate in making a special concrete such as SCC-FA-CSA in structural component is verified and discussed. The research encourages potential use of the agro-waste known as CSA. It instantaneously reduces the consumption of normal natural stone aggregates apart from serving as a means of combining the CSA with abundantly available fly ash from thermal power stations and in turn help protect our mother earth and its environment by the precious minimised use of normal aggregate.

R. Thenmozhi and N. Balasubramani

Factor Analysis of Mass Concentration Characterization of PM2.5 and its Impact Factors in a Suburban Roadside: Taking a National Road of Zhengzhou, China as an Example

During the winter season from November 4, 2014 to November 16, 2014, one-hour average fine samples (PM2.5) of airborne particulate matter were collected at a busy roadside of the No. 107 national road located in a suburb of Zhengzhou City, China. For a convenient comparative analysis, two sets of data were tested in two different locations (No. 1 and No. 2) at a distance of 200m beside the road. Following previous research results, we considered traffic flow, ambient air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, atmospheric pressure and haze condition as factors to analyse their potential influence on the mass concentration of PM2.5. Same day data from the China National Environmental Monitoring Centre were also compared with the data of the study. Results showed that the average ambient PM2.5 concentrations were significantly higher at the tested suburban roadside than in the city region. However, the t-test result disclosed that the two sets of data had no significant difference (p = 0.001). The difference between the roadside data and the background concentration could be attributed to certain factors that were only sampled at the suburban roadside. Pearson correlation analysis was performed to identify the source contribution of the ambient PM2.5 concentration at the study locations. The correlation values indicated that the major factors with relatively significant influence on the PM2.5 data during the events under study were temperature (0.310 at the No. 1 site and 0.268 at the No. 2 site), relative humidity (0.532 at the No. 1 site and 0.303 at the No. 2 site), traffic flow (0.393 at the No. 1 site and 0.379 at the No. 2 site), wind speed (“0.264 at the No. 1 site and “0.187 at the No. 2 site), and wind direction (0.262 at the No. 2 site). Among all the impact parameters considered in the study, traffic flow contributed most to the PM2.5 mass concentration (correlation values were 0.393 and 0.379 for the No. 1 and No. 2 sites, respectively). Relative humidity (correlation value = 0.532 for the No. 1 site and correlation value = 0.303 for the No. 2 site) and wind speed contributed to the reduction of the PM2.5 mass concentration.

Yang Lei, Ran Wei, Shiyuan Wang, Yan Wang, Liuliu Du and Henggen Shen

Prevalence of Escherichia coli Serotypes in Water and the fish Schizothorax niger in Dal Lake

Escherichia coli serotypes in water and fish (Schizothorax niger) samples of Dal Lake in autumn (2010), winter (2010-11) and spring (2011) seasons were analysed. A total of 108 isolates from water and fish were recovered. The predominant serotype in water was O8 (16.66%), followed by O25 (14.81%) and O140 (10.37%) and of fish, serotype O68 (18.87%), followed by O84 (13.20%). Serotypes O78, O86, O153, O84, O68 and O25, known for their association with human and animal diseases, were isolated from both fish and water samples.

Monisa Mehboob and M. H. Balkhi

Effective Utilization of Wastes from Steel Industries in Concrete

Steel slag, a by-product of steel making, is produced during the separation of the molten steel from impurities in steel-making furnaces. The slag occurs as a molten liquid melt and is a complex solution of silicates and oxides that solidifies upon cooling. It is estimated that 115-180Mt of steel slag is poured out annually worldwide and in addition to this previous accumulation of the material has created mountains of steel slag. In India, steel slag output is approximately 20% by mass, of the crude steel output. The slag in India is used mainly in the cement manufacture and in other unorganized work, such as landfills and railway ballast. In order to reduce the pollution load on landfill for the disposal of steel slag at steel industries, it can be effectively utilized in construction as aggregates in concrete. Use of waste materials can solve problems of lack of aggregate in various construction sites and reduce environmental problems related to aggregate mining and waste disposal. The use of waste aggregates can also reduce the cost of the concrete production. In this research work an attempt is made to utilize the steel slag as partial replacement material for natural aggregates in concrete. 10% to 100% replacement was done in 10% increment and fresh and hardened concrete properties were studied.

P. S. Kothai and R. Malathy

Ecology and Breeding Biology of Indian Stone Curlew (Burhinus indicus)

The ecology and breeding biology of Indian stone curlew was studied in two selected sites of Kurukshetra, Haryana. Indian stone curlew morphologically characterized by sandy black bill, large yellow eyes and prominent black and white wing bars. The nest was found to build on furrowed soil with fine clay, gravel or sand having free drainage during the months of March and April. The vegetation in breeding ground mainly comprised of species of Family Amaranthaceae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Polygonaceae and Asteraceae. During the breeding both the parents defend breeding ground against their natural enemies by maintaining the nest territory of 100 meters. Two eggs dirty white in colour with dark brown irregular patches were observed in each nest. The incubation period was 27 days. Both the parents participate in incubation and rearing the hatchlings. Hatchlings are precocial and start feeding after hatching. The young one migrates to feeding grounds after a span of approximately three to four months. Due to intensive anthropogenic activities, Indian stone curlew is facing habitat and breeding ground shrinkage. The farmers and town planners should be advised to manage some area with natural habitation to ensure its nesting, feeding and breeding success of this important species.

Manju Sharma and R. K. Sharma

Carbon Dioxide Capture Via Liquid Nitrogen in Compression Ignition Engine

The current study presents a new process for post combustion carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in diesel engine. Cryogenic technique is used to achieve CO2 separation from engine exhaust gas. The proposed process converted the CO2 in the form of dry ice using a cooled liquid absorbent (liquid nitrogen) at low pressure (close to atmospheric) and cryogenic temperature. The liquid nitrogen has a temperature of -196°C provided the cooling power to freeze out the CO2 in the form of dry ice. Experiments are performed in single cylinder four stroke diesel engine with an eddy current dynamometer and AVL444 Di-Gas analyser. The engine exhaust gas is allowed to pass over liquid nitrogen CO2 capture system. The result shows that liquid nitrogen is able to convert 90% of CO2 in the form of dry ice at full load condition.

Suresh Vellaiyan, K. S. Amirthagadeswarn and B.Varun

Accumulation of Heavy Metals in the Surface Water of Asthamudi Lake, Kollam, Kerala

Ashtamudi Lake, the Ramsar site, is subjected to severe pollution by domestic sewage, agricultural activity and industrial wastes. In this study, the distribution of heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd) was measured from three sites of the lake for a period of one year from November 2010 to December 2011. The results of the study show that the heavy metal concentration was remarkably high, especially in Site-2 and Site-3. Iron was found to exceed the maximum permissible limit in all the sites which indicates the severity of pollution in the lake. Chromium exceeds the limit in Site-2 and Site-3, whereas all other metals are within the permissible limit. Constant monitoring of water quality of Ashtamudi Lake is needed to record any fluctuation in the quality and mitigate occurrence of health disorders and the harmful impacts on the aquatic system.

L. Razeena Karim and E. Sherly Williams

Isolation and Characterization of Encoded Formaldehyde Responsive Gene from the Plant Dieffenbachia compacta

Plants have several defence mechanisms to survive in a stressful environment. Formaldehyde is one of the indoor air pollutants that can cause cancer. Ornamental plant Dieffenbachia compacta can be used as biological control for pollutants in the indoor air environment. This study was conducted to isolate the genes that response for detoxifying formaldehyde in Dieffenbachia compacta. Methods used to isolate the gene is by using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). A total of 735 base pairs was isolated using a primer from Epipremnum aureum FALDH genes. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed that the sequence similarities of 85% and 84% to the FALDH mRNA for Epipremnum aureum and Populus trichocarpa respectively. While for amino acid 92% similarities were found against Epipremnum aureum and Populus trichocarpa. A total of 87 amino acids that were encoded from 261 base pairs using the Open Reading Frame Finder. Our finding showed that the isolated Dieffenbachia compacta gene is the gene for glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH). As a conclusion, formaldehyde metabolism in plants is regulated by the enzyme glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH). The activity of FALDH indicates that this enzyme might be part of the universal metabolism pathway shared by a variety of organisms.

Anuar Ithnin, Mira Azilah Ibrahim, Che Radziah Md. Zain and Azhar Abdul Halim

Study on the Pollutant Diffusion Regularity in Open Channel with Vegetation

Instream vegetation not only affects the discharge capacity of the river but also plays an important role in the pollutants diffusion. So it is very important to study the pollutants diffusion in the open channels with vegetation. In order to experimentally investigate the effects of rigid vegetation on the characteristics of flow, the vegetation was modelled by a rigid cylindrical rod. The flow field is measured under the conditions of submerged rigid rod in a flume with single layer and double layer vegetation. Experiments were performed for various spacing of the rigid rods. The vegetation models were aligned with the approaching flow in a rectangular channel. Vertical distribution of pollutants was evaluated using image processing methods. The results indicate that the vegetation has a more stable effect on the spread of pollutants.

Changjun Zhu, Wenlong Hao and Xiangping Chang

Modelling and Biosorption Competence of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model was urbanized to forecast the biosorption competence of zinc oxide nanoparticle ingrained on activated silica using Corriandrum sativum (ZNO-NPs-AS-Cs) for the amputation of whole As(III) from aqueous solution based on 95 data sets obtained in a laboratory batch study. Experimental parameters affecting the biosorption progression such as initial concentration, dosage, pH, contact time and agitation were premeditated. A contact time of 90 min was generally passable to bring about equilibrium. The maximum adsorption capacity of (ZNO-NPs-AS-Cs) in AS (III) removal was found to be 3.46 g/L. The sensitivity analysis confirmed that MSE values decreased as the number of variables used in the ANN model increased. The relative increase in the performance due to inclusion of V2, adsorbent dosage; V3, contact time; and V5, agitation speed is larger than the contribution of other variables. The proposed ANN model provided realistic experimental data with a satisfactory correlation coefficient of 0.999 for five operating variables.

D. Gnanasangeetha and D. Sarala Thambavani

Reduction of Green House Gases Emission in Self Compacting Geopolymer Concrete Using Sustainable Construction Materials

The global warming is caused by emission of green house gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. The cement industry is held responsible for some of the carbon dioxide emissions, because the production of one tonne of Portland cement emits one tonne of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In terms of global warming the geopolymer technology could significantly reduce the carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere caused by cement industries. This research is aimed to give awareness about the green house gas emissions from the cement manufacturing industries and the methods of reducing this by the use of fly ash and GGBFS. Two kinds of systems have been considered in this study, 100% replacement of cement by fly ash and 100% replacement of river sand by manufactured sand. The workability of Self Compacting Geopolymer Concrete (SCGC) for various molarities was investigated and fixed to 12M. The work focused on the concrete mixes with a fixed water-to-geopolymer solid (W/Gs) ratio of 0.33 by mass and a constant total binder content of 450 kg/m3. The workability related fresh properties for molarity of 12M of SCGC were assessed through slump flow, T50cm slump flow, V-funnel, L-box and U-Box test methods. The mix proportions are arrived according to EFNARC (European Federation of National Associations Representing for Concrete) guidelines. Based on the results from workability and strength study, the results have been discussed for SCGC.

T. G. Ushaa, R. Anuradha and G. S. Venkatasubramani